Paul Wong

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Paul Wong

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Paul Wong is a renowned psychologist and existential therapist who has made significant contributions to the fields of positive psychology, meaning therapy, and death acceptance. He was born in China in 1939 and immigrated to Canada in 1960, where he pursued his academic and professional career. He is currently the president of the International Network on Personal meaning and the meaning-Centered counselling Institute.

Wong’s main research interest is the role of meaning in human life, especially in the face of suffering and death. He has developed several theories and models to explain how people can find meaning and purpose in adversity, such as the meaning management theory, the dual-system model of coping, and the PURE model of meaning. He has also created various psychological instruments to measure meaning-related constructs, such as the Personal meaning Profile, the Sources of meaning Profile, and the Death Attitude Profile.

Wong is widely recognized as a pioneer and leader in positive psychology and existential therapy. He has published numerous books and articles on these topics, such as The Human Quest for meaning (1998), The Positive Psychology of meaning and spirituality (2007), and The Positive Psychology of Suffering (2019). He has also received many awards and honours for his scholarly and clinical work, such as the Carl Rogers Award from the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2000, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) in 2009, and the Order of Canada in 2016.

Wong’s life and work exemplify his own philosophy of finding meaning in suffering. He has overcome many personal and professional challenges, such as poverty, discrimination, illness, and loss. He has also dedicated himself to helping others cope with their existential crises through his teaching, counselling, writing, and mentoring. Wong is widely respected and admired by his colleagues, students, clients, and friends for his wisdom, compassion, and integrity. As he once said, “The ultimate test of a person’s character is not how much he suffers in the test, but how he comes out at the end” (Wong, 2006, p. 93).

The meaning management theory

meaning management theory is a set of ideas and methods that aims to help people cope with the existential anxiety caused by the awareness of their own mortality and the search for meaning in life and death (Wong, 2012). According to this theory, meaning is not a fixed entity, but a dynamic process that involves creating, discovering, maintaining, and changing meanings in response to changing circumstances (Wong, 2012). meaning management theory proposes that people can use various strategies to manage their meanings, such as denial, illusion, distraction, affirmation, transformation, and transcendence (Wong, 2012). These strategies can have positive or negative effects on wellbeing, depending on the context and the degree of congruence with one’s values and goals (Wong, 2012).

One example of meaning management theory is the concept of terror management theory (TMT), which suggests that people use cultural world-views and self-esteem to buffer against the terror of death (Greenberg et al., 1986). TMT predicts that when people are reminded of their mortality (mortality salience), they will defend their world-views and self-esteem more strongly, and show more prejudice and aggression towards those who threaten or challenge them (Greenberg et al., 1986). However, TMT also acknowledges that there are alternative ways of coping with death anxiety, such as developing a sense of meaning and purpose in life, or cultivating a transcendent perspective that goes beyond one’s personal identity (Pyszczynski et al., 2004).

Another example of meaning management theory is the concept of death acceptance, which refers to a positive or neutral attitude towards one’s own death and the deaths of others (Wong et al., 2004). Death acceptance can be achieved through various pathways, such as finding meaning and value in life, having a spiritual or religious faith, having a sense of continuity or legacy, or having a realistic and balanced view of death (Wong et al., 2004). Death acceptance can enhance wellbeing by reducing death anxiety, increasing life satisfaction, promoting positive emotions, and facilitating coping with loss and grief (Wong et al., 2004).

meaning management theory can be useful for managers who want to help their employees deal with the existential challenges and uncertainties of work and life. By understanding the different ways that people create and manage meanings, managers can provide support and guidance that are tailored to the needs and preferences of each individual. Managers can also foster a work environment that encourages meaning-making and meaning-sharing among employees, such as by providing opportunities for learning, growth, creativity, autonomy, collaboration, feedback, recognition, and contribution (Wong & Fry, 1998). By doing so, managers can enhance employee well-being, motivation, performance, and retention.

The dual-system model of coping

Wong’s dual-system model of coping is a holistic approach to understanding how people deal with various challenges and stressors in life. According to Wong (2013), this model consists of three overlapping systems: the three factors of wellbeing (positive affect, personal growth, and reduction of negativity), the positive triad of resilience (acceptance, affirmation, and aspiration), and the dual-system of managing approach and avoidance (balancing between meaning-seeking and pleasure-seeking). Wong argues that this model can help people achieve a meaningful and fulfilling life by addressing their needs, fears, and values.

One example of applying Wong’s dual-system model of coping is in the context of bereavement. Stroebe and Schut (1999) proposed a similar model, the dual process model of coping with bereavement, which identifies two types of stressors: loss-oriented (focusing on the deceased and the emotional aspects of grief) and restoration-oriented (focusing on the changes and challenges in life after the loss). They suggest that coping with bereavement involves a dynamic process of oscillation, whereby the grieving individual alternates between confronting and avoiding the different tasks of grieving. This process allows the individual to adapt to the loss and restore a sense of meaning and purpose in life.

Another example of applying Wong’s dual-system model of coping is in the context of positive psychology. Wong (2013) criticizes the mainstream positive psychology for being too focused on positive experiences and emotions, and neglecting the role of meaning and suffering in human flourishing. He proposes that a complete positive psychology should incorporate both existential and hedonic perspectives, and balance between meaning-seeking and pleasure-seeking. He also emphasizes the importance of resilience, which he defines as “the ability to maintain or regain mental health during or after experiencing adversity” (Wong, 2013, p. 6). Wong identifies three components of resilience: acceptance (acknowledging and embracing reality), affirmation (affirming one’s strengths and values), and aspiration (pursuing worthwhile goals).

The PURE model of meaning

The PURE model of meaning is a framework that emphasizes the four essential components of living a meaningful life and doing meaningful work: purpose, Understanding, Responsible action, and Enjoyment/Evaluation (Wong, 2010, 2011). According to this model, meaning is not something that we discover or receive from external sources, but something that we create through our own actions and reflections.

purpose refers to having a clear and worthwhile goal that guides our decisions and behaviours. It also involves aligning our personal values with our actions and contributing to something larger than ourselves. For example, one may find purpose in pursuing a career that helps others or in raising a family with love and care.

Understanding refers to having a coherent and comprehensive world-view that makes sense of ourselves, others, and the world. It also involves seeking new knowledge and insights that can enrich our lives and expand our horizons. For example, one may find understanding in studying a subject that fascinates them or in exploring different cultures and perspectives.

Responsible action refers to taking charge of our lives and making choices that are consistent with our purpose and understanding. It also involves accepting the consequences of our actions and learning from our mistakes. For example, one may find responsible action in working hard to achieve their goals or in taking care of their health and well-being.

Enjoyment/Evaluation refers to finding joy and satisfaction in what we do and who we are. It also involves assessing our progress and outcomes and making adjustments as needed. For example, one may find enjoyment/evaluation in celebrating their achievements or in reflecting on their growth and development.

The PURE model of meaning can be applied to various domains of life, such as work, education, health, and relationships. It can also be used as a tool for counselling and psychotherapy, as it helps clients identify their sources of meaning and enhance their wellbeing (Wong, 2012).

Differences between Wong’s concept of meaning and that of others

Wong, Page, and Cheung (2021), highlight important differences between their concept of meaning and that of others, in their publication, “A self-transcendence Model of Servant Leadership”. In this document, the authors explain how self-transcendence, which is the core of existential positive psychology (EPP or PP2.0), is required for implementing servant leadership and integrating the servant leadership literature. They define self-transcendence as “a way of life and a way of overcoming all the inescapable suffering and limitations to achieve enduring happiness and flourishing” (Wong et al., 2021, p. 3).

According to Wong (n.d.), servant leadership is a model of leadership that is based on self-transcendence, spirituality, humility, and serving others for the greater good. Servant leaders seek to achieve organizational goals by developing and unleashing the creative potential of human resources (Wong & Davey, 2007). Servant leadership represents a radical approach – it is humanistic and spiritual rather than rational and mechanistic; it puts workers rather than shareholders at the centre of concentric circles; and it motivates workers primarily through creating a caring and supportive workplace rather than through individual incentive systems (Wong & Davey, 2007). Servant leadership is also predicated on the belief that serving and developing workers is the best way to achieve organizational goals because any company is only as good as its human resources (Wong, n.d.). Servant leadership is biblically based and modelled after Jesus Christ, who exemplified the ultimate servant leader (Wong, Page, & Cheung, n.d.).

The authors point out the important difference between Seligman’s understanding of meaning, and Frankl‘s as well as their own understanding of more profound meaning. They argue that Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model of wellbeing is based on a hedonic approach that focuses on positive emotions and experiences, while Frankl’s (1985) logotherapy is based on an eudaimonic approach that focuses on finding meaning and purpose in life, especially in the face of suffering and death. They also propose that their own EPP or PP2.0 model goes beyond both hedonic and eudaimonic approaches by emphasizing self-transcendence as the key to flourishing in difficult times.

The eudaimonic approach

The eudaimonic approach is a perspective on wellbeing that emphasizes the importance of living in accordance with one’s true nature, character, and virtue, as well as pursuing one’s potential, meaning, and growth (Boniwell, 2008). This approach can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who argued that happiness (eudaimonia) is not a subjective feeling of pleasure (hedonia), but rather a state of being that results from fulfilling one’s purpose and achieving excellence in life (Aristotle, 1985).

According to the eudaimonic approach, wellbeing is not dependent on external circumstances or material goods, but on the intrinsic motivation and self-regulation of individuals who seek to realize their unique talents and capacities (Joseph, 2019). The eudaimonic approach also recognizes the social dimension of wellbeing, as individuals are embedded in a cultural context that provides them with opportunities and resources to pursue their goals and values (SpringerLink, 2021). The eudaimonic approach is therefore a holistic and dynamic view of wellbeing that encompasses both personal and collective aspects of human flourishing.

Seligman’s PERMA model of wellbeing

Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model of wellbeing is a theoretical framework that identifies five key elements that contribute to human flourishing: Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, meaning, and Accomplishment. According to this model, each element is pursued for its own sake and can be measured independently of the others.

Positive emotion refers to the experience of pleasant feelings such as joy, gratitude, love, and satisfaction. Engagement involves being fully absorbed and immersed in an activity that challenges one’s skills and strengths. Relationships are the positive and supportive connections that one has with other people. meaning is the sense of belonging and purpose that one derives from being part of something larger than oneself. Accomplishment is the achievement of personal or collective goals that are valued and rewarding (Seligman, 2011).

The PERMA model is based on the premise that wellbeing is more than just the absence of mental illness or negative emotions. It is a multidimensional construct that encompasses both hedonic (pleasure-based) and eudaimonic (purpose-based) aspects of happiness. The model also suggests that wellbeing can be enhanced by cultivating these five elements in one’s life, either individually or in combination. Research has indicated that the PERMA elements are associated with various positive outcomes, such as improved health, life satisfaction, resilience, creativity, and productivity (Kern et al., 2014; Rusk & Waters, 2015). The PERMA model can be applied in various settings and contexts, such as education, work, health, and community, to promote wellbeing among individuals and groups.

Highlighting the differences

Wong (2021a) proposes an alternative model of existential positive psychology (PP 2.0), which emphasizes the need for self-transcendence in overcoming adversity and pursuing the highest ideals. He draws on Frankl‘s (1985) concept of logotherapy, which is based on the premise that “man’s search for meaning is the primary motivation in his life” (p. 121). Frankl (1985) asserts that meaning can be found in three ways: by creating a work or doing a deed, by experiencing something or encountering someone, and by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering. Wong (2021a) adds a fourth way of finding meaning: by transcending oneself and serving a higher purpose.

To highlight that perspective, Wong, Page, and Cheung (2021), quote Frankl (1985), who said: “What man actually needs is not a tensionless state but rather the striving and struggling for some goal worthy of him. What he needs is not the discharge of tension at any cost, but the call of a potential meaning waiting to be fulfilled by him” (p. 127). They also provide examples of how self-transcendence can be manifested in servant leadership, such as having a vision that transcends one’s own interests, serving others with faith and sacrificial love, and cultivating humility and gratitude.

In addition, Seligman (2002) defines meaning as “belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self” (p. 263). However, Wong (2021a) argues that this definition is too vague and does not capture the essence of self-transcendence, which is “the motivation to go beyond limitations and obstacles to reach one’s goal” (p. 9). Wong (2021a) also criticizes Seligman’s positive education for being too focused on the ego and ignoring the role of suffering in human flourishing.

To illustrate the difference between Seligman’s and Frankl’s/Wong’s views on meaning, Wong (2021b) uses the example of Viktor Frankl himself, who survived the Nazi concentration camps and found meaning in his suffering by helping others and writing his book Man’s Search for meaning. Wong (2021b) claims that Frankl’s experience “demonstrates that self-transcendence is not only a source of meaning but also a source of resilience and wellbeing” (p. 4). He also cites examples of other people who have flourished through suffering by transcending themselves, such as Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, and Martin Luther King Jr.

This highlights the important difference between Seligman’s understanding of meaning, which is based on belonging and serving something bigger than oneself, and Frankl‘s as well as Wong’s understanding of deep meaning, which is based on transcending oneself and finding a higher purpose in life. Wong argues that self-transcendence is the key to meaning and wellbeing, especially in times of crisis and suffering. He provides quotes and examples from various sources to support his argument and to show how self-transcendence can be applied in different domains of life.

Influence on transcendence theory

Paul Wong is a pioneer in the field of existential positive psychology, which emphasizes the importance of meaning and self-transcendence for human flourishing. According to Wong (2021b), self-transcendence is “the key to meaning and wellbeing during Covid-19″ (p. 1). He defines self-transcendence as “the ability to step out of oneself and connect with something greater than oneself, such as a higher power, a noble cause, or a shared vision” (Wong, 2021a, p. 2). self-transcendence enables us to overcome and transform suffering into resilience and motivation to pursue the highest ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness (Wong, 2021b).

One example of how Wong has influenced transcendence thinking is his development and validation of the self-transcendence Measure-B (STM-B), which assesses the degree to which individuals engage in self-transcending behaviours and attitudes during the Covid-19 pandemic (Wong et al., 2021). The STM-B consists of 17 items that reflect themes such as serving others, appreciating nature, seeking spiritual growth, and pursuing excellence. The STM-B has shown good psychometric properties and has demonstrated positive associations with psychological wellbeing, meaning in life, gratitude, hope, and optimism. The STM-B also has shown negative associations with depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness. The STM-B can be used as a tool to measure and promote self-transcendence as a buffer against Covid-19 suffering.

Another example of how Wong has influenced transcendence thinking is his introduction of the meaning dimension as a necessary spiritual orientation for the good life of virtue, happiness, and meaning (Wong, 2015). He argues that meaning mindset, which represents a fundamental perspective change from a success orientation to a meaning orientation, is the cognitive aspect of self-transcendence. meaning mindset facilitates the discovery of meaning in all situations, especially in times of crisis and adversity. Wong (2015) also proposes that self-transcendence is the motivational aspect of meaning-seeking and meaning-making. He suggests that when we can step out of ourselves from egotism towards the greater good, we will be liberated and empowered to nurture the better angels of our nature and experience the good life.

Publications

Here is a summarised list of the major publications by Paul Wong:

The Human Quest for meaning: A Handbook of Psychological Research and Clinical Applications (1998) and The Human Quest for meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications (2012). These are two influential volumes that explore the role of meaning in human wellbeing and flourishing. They contain contributions from leading scholars and practitioners in various fields of psychology, such as existential, positive, clinical, counselling, and cross-cultural psychology. They also provide practical applications of meaning-oriented interventions for various populations and settings. “meaning is the foundation of hope and resilience; it is also the key to transforming tragedy into triumph” (Wong, 2012, p. xiii).

The Handbook of Multicultural Perspectives on stress and Coping (2006). This is a comprehensive handbook that examines how people from different cultural backgrounds cope with stress and adversity. It covers topics such as acculturation, immigration, discrimination, trauma, health, spirituality, and resilience. It also offers guidelines for culturally sensitive assessment and intervention. “This handbook represents an important step toward a more inclusive and integrative approach to stress and coping” (Wong & Wong, 2006, p. xxi).

Implicit theories of meaningful life and the development of the Personal meaning Profile (PMP) (1998). This is a seminal paper that introduces the concept of implicit theories of meaningful life and the Personal meaning Profile (PMP), a widely used measure of personal meaning. It proposes that people have different beliefs about what makes life meaningful, and that these beliefs influence their goals, values, and behaviours. It also demonstrates that personal meaning can be assessed by asking people to rate the importance and contribution of various sources of meaning in their lives. “The PMP provides a comprehensive and flexible measure for both research and clinical purposes” (Wong, 1998, p. 111).

Multidimensional jealousy (1989). This is a classic paper that proposes a multidimensional model of jealousy, based on cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. It also develops a Multidimensional Jealousy Scale (MJS), a reliable and valid measure of jealousy in romantic relationships. It suggests that jealousy can be understood as a complex phenomenon that involves different types of cognitions (e.g., self-evaluation, comparison, attribution), emotions (e.g., anger, fear, sadness), and behaviours (e.g., surveillance, violence, communication). “Jealousy is not a unitary construct; rather, it is a syndrome consisting of different dimensions” (Pfeiffer & Wong, 1989, p. 181).

self-transcendence specific publications

Wong, P. T. P. (2003). The transcendental life: An impossible dream? Positive Living Newsletter. Retrieved
from http://www.meaning.ca/archives/presidents_columns/pres_col_jul_2003_transcendental-life.htm

Wong, P. T. P. (2016). meaning-seeking, self-transcendence, and well-being. In A. Batthyany (Ed.), logotherapy and existential analysis: Proceedings of the Viktor Frankl Institute (Vol. 1; pp. 311-322). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

Wong, P. T. P. (2016). self-transcendence: A paradoxical way to become your best. International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6 (1). Retrieved from http://journal.existentialpsychology.org/index.php/ExPsy/article/view/178/141

Wong, P. T. P. (2016, November 7). Acceptance, transcendence, & yin-yang dialectics: The three basic tenets of second wave positive psychology. Positive Living Newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/inpm-presidents-report-november-2016/

Wong, P. T. P. (2016, October 18). The good life through polarity and transcendence (Part 1 of 2). The Virtue Blog . Retrieved from https://thevirtueblog.com/2016/10/18/the-good-life-through-polarity-and-transcendence-part-1/Wong, P. T. P. (2017, February 2). Bad and good self-transcendence. The Virtue Blog. Retrieved from https://thevirtueblog.com/2017/02/02/bad-and-good-self-transcendence/

Wong, P. T. P. (2017, January 18). The varieties of self-transcendence: The good and the bad. Positive Living Newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/inpm-presidents-report-january-2017

Wong, P. T. P. (2020, July). How a Healthy Dosage of self-transcendence can Overcome COVID-19 [President’s Column]. Positive Living Newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/how-a-healthy-dosage-of-self-transcendence-can-overcome-covid-19/

Wong, P. T. P. (2021). The Frankl cure for the 21st century: Why self-transcendence is the key to mental health and flourishing. The International Forum for logotherapy, 41 (2), 33-50. http://www.drpaulwong.com/the-frankl-cure-for-the-21st-century-why-self-transcendence-is-the-key-to-mental-health-and-flourishing/#:~:text=His%20dialectical%20and%20paradoxical%20self,to%20mental%20health%20and%20flourishing.

Wong, P. T. P. (2022). The best possible life in a troubled world: The seven principles of self-transcendence [亂世中活出最好的人生：自我超越的七項原則]. Positive Psychology in Counseling and Education. http://www.drpaulwong.com/the-best-possible-life-in-a-troubled-world/

Wong, P. T. P. (2022). The wisdom of the soul: The missing key to happiness and positive mental health? [Review of the book A Time for Wisdom: Knowledge, Detachment, Tranquility, Transcendence, by P. T. McLaughlin & M. R. McMinn]. International Journal of
Existential Positive Psychology, 11 (2). https://www.meaning.ca/ijepp-article/vol11-no2/the-wisdom-of-the-soul-the-missing-key-to-happiness-and-positive-mental-health/

Wong, P. T. P. (2016, October 19). The good life through polarity and transcendence (Part 2 of 2). The Virtue Blog. Retrieved from https://thevirtueblog.com/2016/10/19/the-good-life-through-polarity-and-transcendence-part-2/

Wong, P. T. P., & Reilly, T. (2017, August 15). Frankl’s self-transcendence model and virtue ethics (Part 1 of 2). The Virtue Blog. Retrieved from https://thevirtueblog.com/2017/08/15/frankls-self-transcendence-model-and-virtue-ethics-part-1-of-2/ (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation)

Wong, P. T. P., & Reilly, T. (2017, August 16). Frankl’s self-transcendence model and virtue ethics (Part 2 of 2). The Virtue Blog. Retrieved from https://thevirtueblog.com/2017/08/16/frankls-self-transcendence-model-and-virtue-ethics-part-2/ (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation)

Wong, P. T. P., Arslan, G., Bowers, V. L., Peacock, E. J., Kjell, O. N. E., Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T. (2021). self-transcendence as a buffer against COVID-19 suffering: The development and validation of the self-transcendence measure-B. Frontiers, 12, 4229.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648549

Wong, P. T. P., Mayer, C.-H., & Arslan, G. (Eds.) (2021). COVID-19 and Existential Positive Psychology (PP2.0): The New Science of self-transcendence. Frontiers in Psychology.

Wong, P. T. P., Page, T., & Cheung, T. (2022). A self-transcendence model of servant leadership. In S. Dhiman & G. Roberts (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Servant Leadership (pp. 1-26). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69802-7_58-1

References

Aristotle. (1985). Nicomachean ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.). Hackett Publishing Company.

Boniwell, I. (2008). What is eudaimonia? The concept of eudaimonic well-being and happiness. http://positivepsychology.org.uk/the-concept-of-eudaimonic-well-being/

Frankl, V. E. (1985). Man’s search for meaning. Washington Square Press.

Greenberg J., Pyszczynski T., Solomon S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In: Baumeister R.F. (eds) Public Self and Private Self. Springer Series in Social Psychology. Springer: New York.

Kern, M. L., Waters, L. E., Adler, A., & White, M. A. (2014). A multidimensional approach to measuring well-being in students: Application of the PERMA framework. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(3), 262-271.

Joseph, S. (2019). What is eudaimonic happiness? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/what-doesnt-kill-us/201901/what-is-eudaimonic-happiness

Pfeiffer, S. M., & Wong, P. T. P. (1989). Multidimensional jealousy. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6(2), 181-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540758900600203

Pyszczynski T., Solomon S., Greenberg J. (2004). Thirty years of terror management theory: From genesis to revelation. In: Greenberg J., Koole S.L., Pyszczynski T. (eds) Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology. Guilford Press: New York.

Rusk, R. D., & Waters, L. E. (2015). Tracing the size, reach, impact, and breadth of positive psychology. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(3), 207-221.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.

SpringerLink. (2021). Eudaimonic and hedonic happiness. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_3778-2

Stroebe, M., & Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224.

Wong, P. T. P. (2013). Toward a dual-systems model of what makes life worth living. In J. A. Hicks & C. Routledge (Eds.), The experience of meaning in life: Classical perspectives, emerging themes, and controversies (pp. 3-22). Springer.

Wong P.T.P. (2012). meaning management theory: A critical review. In: Hicks, J.A., Routledge, C. (eds) The Experience of meaning in Life: Classical Perspectives, Emerging Themes, and Controversies. Springer: Dordrecht.

Wong P.T.P., Reker G.T., Gesser G. (1994). Death Attitude Profile-Revised: A multidimensional measure of attitudes toward death. In: Neimeyer R.A. (ed) Death anxiety Handbook: Research Instrumentation And Application. Taylor & Francis: Washington, DC.

Wong P.T.P., Fry P.S. (1998). The Human Quest for meaning: A Handbook of Psychological Research And Clinical Applications. Routledge: New York.

Wong, P. T. P. (1998). Implicit theories of meaningful life and the development of the Personal meaning Profile (PMP). In P. T. P. Wong & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (pp. 111-140). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Wong, P. T. P., & Wong, L. C. J. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of multicultural perspectives on stress and coping. Springer.

Wong, P. T. P. (1998). The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Wong, P. T. P. (Ed.). (2007). The positive psychology of meaning and spirituality: Selected papers from meaning Conferences. Birmingham, AL: purpose Research.

Wong, P. T. P. (2006). Existential vs. positive psychology: Two approaches to the meaning of life. In A. Delle Fave (Ed.), Dimensions of well-being: Research and intervention (pp. 86-95). Milan: Franco Angeli.

Wong, P. T. P., & Wong, L. C. J. (Eds.). (2019). The positive psychology of suffering: New perspectives on resilience, growth, and meaning. New York: Routledge.

Wong, P. T. P. (2015). self-transcendence as the path to virtue, happiness and meaning. In P. Russo-Netzer & A. Batthyany (Eds.), meaning in existential and positive psychology (pp. 399–414). Springer.

Wong, P. T. P. (2021a). self-transcendence: The key to meaning and wellbeing during Covid-19 [Keynote]. Centre for Advancement in Inclusive and Special Education Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong International Webinar Series on Students’ Well-being [Virtual webinar]. http://www.drpaulwong.com/self-transcendence-the-key-to-meaning-and-wellbeing/

Wong, P. T. P. (2021b). self-transcendence as a buffer against Covid-19 suffering: The development and validation of the self-transcendence Measure-B [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Department of Psychology, Trent University.

Wong, P. T. P., Reker, G., Gao, F., Peacock, E., & Lippitt, M. (2021). self-transcendence as a buffer against Covid-19 suffering: The development and validation of the self-transcendence Measure-B [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Department of Psychology, Trent University.

Wong, P. T. P. (2010). meaning therapy: An integrative and positive existential psychotherapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 40(2), 85-93.

Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 52(2), 69-81.

Wong, P. T. P. (2012). meaning therapy: An integrative and positive existential psychotherapy. In P.T.P Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 433-470). Routledge.

Wong, P. T. P., Mayer, C.-H., & Arslan, G. (2021). Existential positive psychology: The best possible leadership in turbulent times. In L. G. Aspinwall & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Wong, P. T. P., Page, D., & Cheung, T. C.-K. (2021). A self-transcendence model of servant leadership. In D. van Dierendonck & K. Patterson (Eds.), Practicing servant leadership: Developments in implementation (pp. 1–25). Palgrave Macmillan.

Wong, P. T. P. (n.d.). A self-transcendence model of servant leadership. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/a-self-transcendence-model-of-servant-leadership/

Wong, P. T. P., & Davey, D. (2007). Best practices in servant leadership. Servant Leadership Research Roundtable Proceedings. Retrieved from https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2007/wong-davey.pdf

Wong, P. T. P., Page, D., & Cheung, T. C. K. (n.d.). Servant leadership: An opponent-process model and the revised servant leadership profile. Retrieved from http://www.meaning.ca/archives/archive/pdfs/WongServantLeadership.pdf